Nanoparticles, nanocapsules and nanogels

ABSTRACT

Acid-labile poly(N-vinyl formamide) (“PNVF”) nanocapsules were synthesized by free radical polymerization of N-vinyl formamide with optional active ingredients on the surface of silica nanoparticles. Polymerization in the presence of a novel cross-linker that contains an acid-labile ketal facilitated stable etching of silica nanoparticle templates using sodium hydroxide and recovery of PNVF nanocapsules. The formamido side group of PNVF was then hydrolyzed by extended exposure to sodium hydroxide to produce polyvinylamine (“PVAm”) nanocapsules. PNVF and PVAm nanoparticles are also synthesized that form nanogels with optional active ingredients.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to and is a continuation-in-partapplication of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/610,986 filed on Dec.14, 2006, which claims priority to U.S. provisional patent applicationSer. No. 60/751,172 filed on Dec. 16, 2005, both of which areincorporated herein by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

Not applicable.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention pertains generally to novel nanoparticles,nanogels, composite nanoparticles, and hollow nanocapsules and tomethods for synthesizing the same.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Various hydrogels have been investigated as a potential approach for thedelivery of various active ingredients, especially pharmaceutical andother bioactive materials. For example, microgels and microparticlesmade of acrylamides and methacrylamides formed using an arylcross-linker capable of delivering bioactive materials to cells havebeen described in Frechet et al., U.S. Pat. No. 7,056,901, which isincorporated by reference. In many instances, it is preferable that thehydrogels release their contents in response to an environmentalstimuli, allowing for the targeting of protein therapeutics to diseasedtissues and cells. A particularly important environmental stimulus ismildly acidic pH. For example, tumors exist at acidic pHs between 6.4 to6.8, and the phagolysosomes of phagocytic cells are at pHs between about4.5 to 5.0. The acidic nature of these compartments has stimulated aneed for the development of hydrogels that can selectively release theircontents under mildly acidic conditions.

In addition, hollow particles, also referred to as capsules or vesicles,are generating interest in industry, as well as scientific research. Forexample, Feldheim et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,602,932, which is incorporatedby reference, describes polypyrrole nanoparticle composites andnanocapsules which encapsulate a “guest molecule.”

While there has been significant progress, there remains a need todevelop additional novel nanoparticles, nanogels, compositenanoparticles, and nanocapsules useful in the delivery of various activeingredients.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to novel pH-insensitive andpH-sensitive nanoparticles, nanogels, composite nanoparticles, andhollow nanocapsules. In one aspect, the present invention is directed toa composition of matter comprising polyvinyl formamide (“PNVF”)nanoparticles or nanogels, which may be partially or fully hydrolyzed toform polyvinyl amine (“PVAm”) nanoparticles or nanogels. In anotheraspect, the present invention is directed to a composition of mattercomprising silica nanoparticles coated with a PNVF shell to formPNVF-coated silica composite nanoparticles. The PNVF may be fully orpartially hydrolyzed to form PVAm-coated silica composite nanoparticles.In another aspect, the PNVF-coated silica composite nanoparticles aresubjected to silica etching at a high pH to form hollow PNVFnanocapsules. In a further aspect, the PNVF nanocapsules may be furtherprocessed by hydrolysis of the formamido side group to generate PVAmnanocapsules.

In another aspect, the nanoparticles, nanogels, composite nanoparticles,and nanocapsules further comprise an active ingredient associatedtherewith. Non-limiting examples of active ingredients that arecontemplated as being useful in the context of the present inventioninclude those known to a person of ordinary skill and those describedthroughout this specification. By way of example only, activeingredients can include medical pharmaceuticals and specialties such aspreventive agents, for example, vaccines, diagnostic agents, forexample, tracers of various types and imaging enhancers, therapeuticagents, for example, small molecules, nucleic acids, drugs, peptides,polypeptides, proteins, and radiation, immuno-modulators, vaccine andvirus vectors, and combinations of these classes. In particularembodiments, the active ingredient includes respirable non-medicalspecialties, such as physiochemical agents, for example gas antidotes,biophysical modulators, for example, paramagnetics, emitters, forexample, electromagnetic wave emitters, and imaging enhancers.

In another aspect, the present invention is directed to methods forsynthesizing the nanoparticles, composite nanoparticles, and hollownanocapsules. For example, in an exemplary aspect, the nanoparticles (inthe form of solid nanogels) may be formed with an optional activeingredient using inverse emulsion polymerization. The nanoparticles maybe sonicated in order to control the particle size. The compositenanoparticles may be formed by polymerizing a monomer on thenanoparticle template to form a composite nanoparticle comprising theshell and the nanoparticle template. The hollow nanoparticles may thenbe formed by partially or fully removing the template, for example usinga suitable etchant.

In a further aspect, the method comprises: providing a nanoparticletemplate; and forming PNVF shell on the nanoparticle template bypolymerizing an NVF monomer on the nanoparticle template to form acomposite nanoparticle comprising the PNVF shell and the nanoparticletemplate.

In still a further aspect, a method for synthesizing hollow nanocapsulesis also provided. The method comprises: providing a nanoparticletemplate; forming a PNVF shell on the nanoparticle template bypolymerizing a N-vinyl formamide (“NVF”) monomer on the nanoparticletemplate; and at least partially dissolving the nanoparticle template toform a hollow nanocapsule defined by the shell.

In addition, methods for associating an active ingredient with thenanoparticles, composite nanoparticles, and nanocapsules are alsoprovided. In an exemplary aspect, the method comprises providing ananoparticle template conjugated to the active ingredient; and forming aPNVF shell on the nanoparticle template by polymerizing a monomer on thenanoparticle template to thereby encapsulate the active ingredient. Inanother aspect, the method further comprises dissolving the nanoparticletemplate to form a nanocapsule defined by the capsule shell material,wherein the active ingredient resides at least partially within thenanocapsule.

In another aspect, the monomers may be mixed with the cross-linker,initiator, and active ingredient (e.g., enzymes such as lysozyme) andthen polymerized to form a nanogel encapsulated by the activeingredient.

In another aspect, the nanogels, such as the positive-charged PVAmnanogels may be mixed with negatively charged active ingredients, suchnucleic acids (e.g., DNA, RNA, and the like) to form a complex.

In still another aspect, the nanogels may be mixed with suitablecoupling agents and the active ingredient. Preferred coupling agents aresuccinimides and carbodiimides, such as those involvingN-hydroxysucciimide (“NHS”) and 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethyl-aminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride (“EDC”).

In one aspect, the resulting nanoparticles, composite nanoparticles, andhollow nanocapsules possess colloidal stability in a variety of mediasuch as water, ethanol, and toluene. These materials are well adapted toform nanogels.

In another aspect, the shell thickness of the composite nanoparticlesand nanocapsules may be modulated by controlling the monomerconcentration, reaction rate, temperature, and duration of free radicalpolymerization.

In yet another aspect, nanoparticles, nanogels, composite nanoparticles,and nanocapsules are provided in which the conversion of PNVF to PVAmranges between 0 and 100%. In another aspect, the conversion of PNVF toPVAm about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9,about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 16,about 17, about 18, about 19, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35,about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70,about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, or about 100%.

In still another aspect the present invention is directed to a novel,acid-labile cross-linker. The acid-labile cross-linker is used for thepolymerization of NVF to form the PNVF nanoparticles, compositenanoparticles, and nanocapsules of the present invention. In one aspect,the cross-linker is defined according to Formula I:

wherein n and m are independently an integer of between 1 and 10; and

wherein Y is a lower alkyl.

In a further aspect, the acid-labile cross-linker is defined accordingto Formula II:

wherein n and m are independently an integer of between 1 and 10; and

wherein R¹ and R² are independently a lower alkyl, preferably methyl.

In a preferred aspect, the acid-labile cross-linker is2-bis[2,2′-di(N-vinylformamido)ethoxy]propane (“BDEP”).

In still another aspect the present invention is directed to a novelacid-stable (non-degradable) cross-linker. The cross-linker is used forthe polymerization of NVF to form the PNVF nanoparticles, compositenanoparticles, and nanocapsules of the present invention. In one aspect,the cross-linker is defined according to Formula III:

wherein n and m are independently an integer of between 1 and 10.

In a preferred aspect, the acid-stable cross-linker2-(N-vinylformamido)ethyl ether.

In yet another aspect, the present invention is directed to ananoparticles, nanogels, composite nanoparticles, and nanocapsules whichdemonstrate increasingly rapid degradation as pH is decreased.

In a further aspect, the PNVF and PVAm nanocapsules and solid PNVF andPVAm nanogels exhibit increased swelling as pH is decreased dependent onthe degree of amino conversion. The magnitude of swelling correlateswith an increase in zeta potential of the nanosuspension as the pH islowered. Presumably, the increased number (amino conversion) and/orcharging (pH) of the protonated amino groups results in a stretching ofthe crosslinked polymer network.

In another aspect, the synthesis methods of the present inventionprovide a unique approach to generate nanocapsules with multipledesirable properties including the size of the capsules (and thickness),pH responsiveness, biodegradability, and surface functionality.

From an applied perspective, the nanoparticles, nanogels, compositenanoparticles and nanocapsules of the present invention providetremendous advances in such areas as nanoscale electronics, optics,environmental waste removal, drug delivery, biotechnology, and genetherapy.

Additional aspects of the invention, together with the advantages andnovel features appurtenant thereto, will be set forth in part in thedescription which follows, and in part will become apparent to thoseskilled in the art upon examination of the following, or may be learnedfrom the practice of the invention. The objects and advantages of theinvention may be realized and attained by means of the instrumentalitiesand combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of the process for the preparationof PNVF-coated composite nanoparticles and PVAm nanocapsules. Silicananoparticles are coated with a PNVF shell, and the etched to form PVAmnanocapsules.

FIG. 2 is a schematic representation of the synthesis of thecross-linker 2-bis[2,2′-di(N-vinylformamido)ethoxy]propane (“BDEP”).

FIG. 3 shows the fabrication of PNVF shell/silica core compositenanoparticles using different size silica templates prepared in ethanolin the presence of polyvinyl pyrrolidone (“PVP”) as a stabilizer at 70°C. Panel A shows silica particles (83±5.3 nm) with a PNVF shell (23±2.0nm). Panel B shows silica particles (192±10.2 nm) with a PNVF shell(19±1.0 nm). Panel C shows silica particles (800±5.1 nm) with a PNVFshell (17±1.0 nm).

FIG. 4 shows the PNVF shell thickness as a function of polymerizationtime using the methods described herein. The average particle size ofthe silica particles was about 165 nm, and the polymerization occurredat about 70° C.

FIG. 5 shows the IR spectra verified chemical signatures ofPNVF-shell/silica core composite nanoparticles (line A), PNVFnanocapsules after silica etching (about 30% conversion of formamido toamino) (line B), and PVAm nanocapsules (about 100% conversion) (line C).

FIGS. 6A-C are TEM images of the PVAm nanocapsule fabrication processconfirmed each step. Panel A shows PNVF shell/silica core compositenanoparticles having a PNVF shell thickness of 18±1.0 nm and a corediameter of 127±6.2 nm. Panel B shows PNVF nanocapsules having a PNVFshell thickness of 19±1.0 nm and a core diameter of 68±7.3 nm. Panel Cshows PVAm nanocapsules with a PVAm shell thickness of 23±0.5 nm and ameter of 57±3.9 nm.

FIG. 7 shows that the degradation of PVAm nanocapsules over time isstrongly dependent upon the media pH. FIG. 7A shows turbiditymeasurements of PVAm nanocapsules over time as a function of fourdifferent pH values (pH of 7.4, 6.0, 5.0, and 4.0). FIG. 7B showsconfirmation by visualisation of the degradation of PVAm nanocapsulesinto soluble PVAm in buffer having a pH of about 5.0 over time.

FIG. 8 shows the optical density of nanocapsule suspensions as afunction of time. In FIG. 8A, the degradation rate of PVAm nanocapsulesis shown at two different crosslinking densities. In FIG. 8B, thedegradation rate as a function of capsule hydrolysis is shown. PVAmnanocapsules were about 100% hydrolyzed while the PNVF nanocapsules wereonly about 30% hydrolyzed. Degradation was faster for PNVF nanocapsules(▴) compared to the PVAm nanocapsules (▾) under mildly acidic conditions(pH of about 4.7). FIG. 8C shows the degradation rate as a function ofPVAm nanocapsule concentration at four different concentrations (3.4,1.8, 1.04, and 0.6 g/ml). FIG. 8D shows that an increase in the pH ofmedium (circles ●) as a function of increasing PVAm capsuleconcentration led to a decrease in the degradation rate (i.e.,half-life) (squares ▪) of PVAm nanocapsules.

FIG. 9 shows the zeta potential (open circles) and size (open triangles)of PVAm nanocapsules decreased as pH increased. The zeta potential(filled circles) and size (filled triangles) of PNVF nanocapsules (about30% hydrolyzed) showed similar trends at a lower magnitude.

FIG. 10 shows the total internal fluorescence illuminator micrographs ofPVAm nanocapsules at a pH of about 11 (panel A), pH of about 7.4 (panelB), and pH of about 6.8 (Panel C).

FIG. 11 shows the zeta potential (open triangles) and size (opencircles) of PNVF capsules (near 0% amino conversion) as a function ofpH. These PNVF capsules were fabricated using a non-degradablecross-linker and by etching silica with HF.

FIG. 12 shows the size exclusion chromatography chromatograph for thePNVF products recovered from degraded nanocapsules.

FIGS. 13A and 13B are general schematics showing preparation of thenanogels of the present invention. FIG. 13A generally shows the inverseemulsion process, followed by purification, usually one or morecentrifuging cycles to isolate the nanoparticles. FIG. 13B shows howproteins, polypeptides, and other active incrediates may be loaded ontothe nanogels. It will be appreciated that the PNVF nanogel can bereadily converted to a PVAm nanogel.

FIG. 14 is a graph illustrating how the PNVF nanogel size may becontrolled with polymerization time. Two different polymerizationtemperatures were investigated (50° C. and 35° C.)

FIG. 15 is a TEM showing an exemplary PNVF nanogel. The nanogels arespherical in size and have a dry particle size of about 70 to 80 nm.

FIGS. 16A and 16B shows the results of a turbidity assay of PNVFnanogels showing the degradation at three different pH values as afunction of time (pH of about 7.4, 5.8, and 4.7).

FIG. 17 shows that the PNVF nanogels may be readily degraded by alteringthe pH, thereby releasing the active ingredient, such as lysozyme.

FIG. 18 is a signal intensity curve from a magnetic resonancespectrometer. The concentration at zero mg/ml (zero percent) is thenormal signal for water. The use of gadolinium-modified nanogels allowsfor enhancement of the contrast. Thus, the nanoparticles of the presentinvention are well-suited as MRI tracers and contrast agents.

FIG. 19 shows the FTIR spectrum of PNVF nanogels made in accordance withExample 7B, and the FTIR spectrum of the Gd-PEG-PVAm nanogels make inaccordance with Example 12.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

The present invention is directed to novel nanoparticles, nanogels,composite nanoparticles and novel hollow nanocapsules associated with anoptional active ingredient. In an exemplary aspect, the presentinvention is directed to acid-labile partially or fully hydrolyzed PNVFor PVAm nanoparticles that form a nanogel. In another exemplary aspect,the present invention is directed to a composite nanoparticle comprisinga PNVF shell formed on a silica nanoparticle template by free-radicalpolymerization of NVF and crosslinking the PNVF using a novelcross-linker, 2-bis[2,2′-di(N-vinylformamido)ethoxy]propane (“BDEP”),which contains an acid-labile ketal. The silica nanoparticle templatemay be removed by etching to form hollow nanocapsules of PNVF. Inaddition, the PNVF shell may be partially or fully hydrolyzed to formPVAm composite nanoparticles and hollow nanocapsules.

The Template

In the present invention, the nanoparticle template can be made from anysuitable material, such as a wide variety of inorganic materialsincluding metals or ceramics. Representative metals include chromium,iron, zinc, nickel, gold, silver, tin oxide, iron oxide (Fe₂O₃), andplatinum. Representative ceramic materials include silicon dioxide,aluminium oxide, ruthenium oxide, and tin oxide. Other materials includecalcium or calcium precipitates, such as calcium carbonate. A preferrednanoparticle template is silica. Particles made from the above materialsare available commercially.

The template may be of any suitable size or shape. In one aspect, thenanoparticle template is a sphere, a rod, or has an irregular shape. Inanother aspect, the template has a diameter ranging from about 1nanometer to about 1,000 nanometers, more preferably from about 5nanometers to about 500 nanometers, and still more preferably from about10 nanometers to about 200 nanometers. In still another aspect, thetemplate has an average diameter of about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5,about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about13, about 14, about 15, about 16, about 17, about 18, about 19, about20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about90, about 95, about 100, about 110, about 120, about 130, about 140,about 150, about 175, about 200, about 225, about 250, about 275, about300, about 325, about 350, about 375, about 400, about 425, about 450,about 475, or about 500 nm, or any range derivable therein.

The Cross-Linker

In one embodiment, the cross-linker of the present invention ispreferably an acid-labile cross-linker. That is, the cross-linker isstable under basic conditions, but hydrolyzes rapidly under mildlyacidic conditions. For example, the cross-linker is typically stable ata pH greater than about 7 but hydrolyzes significantly at a pH of about5 or less. More preferably, the cross-linker has an acid-labile ketal,and still more preferably is define according to Formula I:

wherein n and m are independently an integer of between 1 and 10; and

wherein Y is a lower alkyl.

In a further aspect, the cross-linker is defined according to Formula 2:

wherein n and m are independently an integer of between 1 and 10; and

wherein R¹ and R² are independently a lower alkyl, preferably methyl.

In a preferred aspect, the cross-linker is2-bis[2,2′-di(N-vinylformamido)ethoxy]propane (“BDEP”).

In another embodiment, the cross-linker is not degradable at low pHvalues. This cross-linker may also be used for the polymerization of NVFto form the PNVF nanoparticles, composite nanoparticles, andnanocapsules of the present invention. In one aspect, the cross-linkeris defined according to Formula III:

wherein n and m are independently an integer of between 1 and 10.

In a preferred aspect, the acid-stable cross-linker2-(N-vinylformamido)ethyl ether (“NVFEE”).

Polymerizable Monomers

The nanoparticle templates of the present invention are coated with asuitable homopolymers or copolymers to form a polymer shell. Preferredpolymerizable monomers are those which form a polymer having an amideside chain, such as N-vinyl formamide and N-vinylacetamide, andcopolymerization of N-vinylformide and N-vinylacetamine with differentmonomers, including but not limited to acrylamides, acrylates, vinylacetate, etc. Other suitable monomers are found in Lenney et al., U.S.Pat. No. 5,470,903, which is incorporated by reference.

The shell may have a thickness which is thicker than the averageparticle size (diameter) of the template, a thickness which is thinnerthan the average particle size of the template, or a thickness which isabout equal to the average particle size of the template. In one aspectthe shell thickness is less than about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5,about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about13, about 14, about 15, about 16, about 17, about 18, about 19, about20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about90, about 95, or about 100 nm, or any range derivable therein. Preferredshell thickness range between 10 and 100 nm, with shell thicknessbetween 15 and 50 nm being more preferred.

Dissolution of Nanoparticle Template

The composite nanoparticles are converted to hollow polymer capsules viadissolution of the nanoparticle template. Any suitable solvent oretchant can be employed to dissolve the nanoparticle template. Forexample, nitric acid (HNO₃) can be used for dissolving silver (Ag)particles, and ascorbic acid can be used for dissolving iron oxide(Fe₂O₃) particles. In addition, either hydrofluoric acid (HF) or sodiumhydroxide (NaOH) can be used to etch silica nanoparticles. Typically thesolvent or etchant is chosen based on the contemplated end use for thenanocapsule and/or the stability of the cross-linker. The solvent oretchant can be biologically compatible when the nanocapsule is to beused for biological applications.

For example, for gold templates, the composite material may be convertedto hollow polymer nanocapsules by soaking a solid support membranecontaining composite particles in an aqueous solution of 0.1 M KCN/0.001M K₃[Fe(CN)₆], or other suitable etchant or solvent for the nanoparticletemplate. Gold dissolution occurs via transport of etchant speciesthrough the polymer shell to the core, where Au⁰ is converted to[Au(CN)₄]⁻.

Hydrolysis of PNVF using an aqueous solution of either acidic (e.g.,hydrochloric acid) or basic conditions (e.g., sodium hydroxide) resultsin PVAm according to the following scheme:

In an exemplary embodiment of present invention, PVAm nanocapsules wereobtained by etching the PNVF/silica composite nanoparticles in NaOHunder sonication followed by hydrolysis of PNVF through extendedexposure to the NaOH aqueous solution (FIG. 1). The pH-sensitivecationic PVAm nanocapsules were able to degrade more quickly at reducedmildly acidic pH values compared to higher near neutral pH values.

PVAm has stable primary amine functionality along its backbone and maybe partially or fully hydrolyzed to impart a low or high densitypolycation, respectively. This polymer has been employed in industrialapplications such as ink jet printing, adhesives, industrial coatings,ion exchange resins (for separation-purification purposes), oil fieldand mining, and textiles. The high reactivity of amino groups providesimportant active sites for crosslinking and/or derivatization.

In addition, recently, PVAm has been used as a macromolecular carrierfor the development of new detection reagents. For example,polyvinylamine-streptavidin conjugates labeled with a europium chelate,were used in combination with biotinylated reagents (e.g., antibodies,DNA probes) for the development of highly sensitive solid-phase,time-resolved, fluorescence-based assays. In addition, PVAm has beendemonstrated as an effective gene delivery vector because of its abilityto condense DNA, the complex exhibiting high stability and high geneexpression in cells.

As discussed more fully below, the size and shell thickness ofnanocapsules was easily adjusted by controlling the size of the silicatemplate and the reaction time, respectively. The resulting nanocapsulesdemonstrated high stability at neutral pH (pH of about 7.4; t_(1/2)greater than 3 days) compared to rapid dissolution observed at lower pH(pH of about 4; t_(1/2) of about 42 minutes). A high degree of swellingoccurred in the PVAm nanocapsules as pH decreased, which correlated withthe relative charge (zeta potential) of PVAm nanocapsules.

As used herein, a “nanoparticle” is a microscopic particle whose size ismeasured in nanometers. In preferred embodiments, the nanoparticles ofthe present invention have a size of from about 1 to about 3000nanometers. In more particular aspects, the nanoparticle has a size ofabout 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100,110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 275, 300, 325, 350, 375,400, 425, 450, 475, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950,1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000, 2100,2200, 2300, 2400, 2500, 2600, 2700, 2800, 2900, 3000, or morenanometers, or any range derivable therein.

As used herein, the term “nanocapsule” refers to a partially orcompletely hollow nanoparticle.

As used herein, the term “nanogel” means a water soluble polymercross-linked to form a nanoparticle, either in solid or capsule form.The nanogels may form a colloidal network when placed in a suitablemedium, such as water.

As used herein, the term “lower alkyl” refers to an aliphatichydrocarbon group which may be straight or branched and comprising about1 to about 6 carbon atoms in the chain, preferably about 1 to 4 carbons.

In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles, composite nanoparticles, andnanocapsules can be associated with an active ingredient (e.g.,entangled, embedded, incorporated, encapsulated, bound to the surface,or otherwise associated with the nanoparticle, composite nanoparticle,or nanocapsule). In certain preferred aspects, the active ingredient isthe nanoparticle, composite nanoparticle, or nanocapsule. In a preferredbut non-limiting aspect, the active ingredient is a drug such as a puredrug (e.g., drugs processed by crystallization or supercritical fluids,an encapsulated drug (e.g., polymers), a surface associated drug (e.g.,drugs that are absorbed or bound to the surface of the nanoparticle,composite nanoparticle, or nanocapsule), or a complexed drugs (e.g.,drugs that are associated with the material used to form thenanoparticle, composite nanoparticle, or nanocapsule).

Active ingredients include, but are not limited to, any component,compound, or small molecule that can be used to bring about a desiredeffect. Non-limiting examples of desired effects of the presentinvention include diagnostic and therapeutic effects. For example, adesired effect can include the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment,or prevention of a disease or condition. An active ingredient can alsoaffect the structure or function of body part or organ in a subject.

Active ingredients which can be used by the present invention includebut are not limited to nucleic acids, proteins and peptides, hormonesand steroids, chemotherapeutics, NSAIDs, vaccine components, analgesics,antibiotics, anti-depressants, etc. Non-limiting examples of nucleicacids that can be used include DNA, cDNA, RNA, iRNA, siRNA, anti-sensenucleic acid, peptide-nucleic acids, oligonucleotides, or nucleic acidsthat are modified to improve stability (e.g., phosphorothioates,aminophosphonates or methylphosphonates).

Proteins and peptides that can be used with the present inventioninclude but are not limited to human growth hormone, bovine growthhormone, vascular endothelial growth factor, fibroblast growth factors,bone morphogenic protein, tumor necrosis factors, erythropoietin,thrombopoietin, tissue plasminogen activator and derivatives, insulin,monoclonal antibodies (e.g., anti-human epidermal growth factorreceptor2 (Herceptin), anti-CD20 (Rituximab), anti-CD 18, anti-vascularendothelial growth factor, anti-IgE, anti-CD 11a) and their derivatives,single-chain antibody fragments, human deoxyribonuclease I (domase alfa,Pulmozyme), type-1 interferon, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor,leuteinizing hormone releasing hormone inhibitor peptides, leuprolideacetate, endostatin, angiostatin, porcine factor VIII clotting factor,interferon alfacon-1, and pancrelipase (pancreatic enzymes).

Non-limiting examples of hormones and steroids (e.g., corticosteroids)that can be used include norethindrone acetate, ethinyl estradiol,progesterone, estrogen, testosterone, prednisone and the like.

Chemotherapeutics that can be used include but are not limited to taxol(Paclitaxel), vinblastine, cisplatin, carboplatin, tamoxifen and thelike.

Non-limiting examples of NSAIDs include piroxicam, aspirin, salsalate(Amigesic), diflunisal (Dolobid), ibuprofen (Motrin), ketoprofen(Orudis), nabumetone (Relafin), piroxicam (Feldene), naproxen (Aleve,Naprosyn), diclofenac (Voltaren), indomethacin (Indocin), sulindac(Clinoril), tolmetin (Tolectin), etodolac (Lodine), ketorolac (Toradol),oxaprozin (Daypro), and celecoxib (Celebrex).

Vaccine components that can be used include but are not limited toHepatitis B, polio, measles, mumps, rubella, HIV, hepatitis A (e.g.,Havrix), tuberculosis, etc.

Non-limiting examples of analgesics include but are not limited toaspirin, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, naproxen sodium and the like.

Antibiotics include but are not limited to amoxicillin, penicillin,sulfa drugs, erythromycin, streptomycin, tetracycline, clarithromycin,tobramycin, ciprofloxacin, terconazole, azithromycin and the like.

Anti-depressants include but are not limited to Zoloft, fluoxetine(Prozac), paroxetine (Paxil), citalopram, venlafaxine, fluvoxaminemaleate, imipramine hydrochloride, lithium, nefazodone and the like.

Other active ingredients that can be used with the present inventioninclude but are not limited to sildenafil (Viagra), acyclovir,gancyclovir, fexofenadine, celecoxib (Celebrex), rofecoxib,androstenedione, chloroquine, diphenhydramine HCl, buspirone, doxazosinmesylate, loratadine, clorniphine, zinc gluconate, zinc acetate,hydrocortisone, warfarin, indinavir sulfate, lidocaine, novocaine,estradiol, norethindrone acetate, medroxyprogesterone, dexfenfluramine,dextroamphetamine, doxycycline, thalidomide, fluticasone, fludarabinephosphate, etanercept, metformin hydrochloride, hyaluronate, tetrazocinhydrochloride, loperamide, ibogaine, clonazepam, ketamine, lamivudine(3TC), isotretinoin, nicotine, mefloquine, levofloxacin, atorvastatin(Lipitor), miconazole nitrate (Monistat), ritonavir, famotidine,simvastatin (Zocor), sibutramine HCl monohydride, ofloxacin,lansoprazole, raloxifene (Evista), zanamivir (Relenza), oseltamivirphosphate, 4-phenylbutyric acid sodium salt, chlorpromazine, nevirapine,zidovudine, and cetirizine hydrochloride (Zyrtec).

Non-limiting examples of additional active ingredients can be found inPhysician's Desk Reference 2000, 54th Edition, ISBN: 1563633302, AHFS 99Drug Information, Amer. Soc. of Health System, ISBN: 1879907917 and U.S.Pat. No. 5,019,400, all of which are incorporated by reference.

Other suitable examples of active ingredients are set forth in Feldheim,U.S. Pat. No. 6,602,932, which is incorporated by reference. Inparticular, other active ingredients include but are not limited todrugs, polynucleic acid constructs and vectors (such as gene therapyvectors), dyes, imaging agents (including paramagnetic, radioactive andfluorogenic chemical species), chemotherapeutic agents, toxins,radiotherapeutics, radiosensitizing agents or other suitable agent.Typically the imaging agents are chelated using a suitable chelatingagent to help avoid toxic effects. Many currently used well-knownparamagnetic agents include ferric ammonium citrate, gadolinium-DTPA,chromium-DTPA, chromium-EDTA, manganese-DTPA, manganese-EDTA, manganesechloride, iron sulfate and mixtures thereof. Exemplary contrast agentsare disclosed in Brechbiel, U.S. Pat. No. 6,852,842, and Mulder et al.,Lipid-based nanoparticles for contrast-enhanced MRI and molecularimaging, NMR Biomed. 19(1) 142-64 (2006), which are incorporated byreference. Further, isotopes of the contrast agents are often used formany imaging techniques. Active ingredients may also include metalcatalyst particles that can extend the life of the particle bypreventing particle agglomeration. Such catalyst particles can be usedin nanoparticles, composite nanoparticles, or nanocapsules in chemicalcatalysis or size-selective environmental waste removal, among otherapplications.

Pharmaceutical Compositions and Routes of Administration

One embodiment of this invention includes methods of treating,preventing, or diagnosing a particular disease or condition byadministering the disclosed nanoparticles, composite nanoparticles, ornanocapsules to a subject. In many instances, the nanoparticles,composite nanoparticles, or nanocapsules are administered alone or canbe included within a pharmaceutical composition. An effective amount ofa pharmaceutical composition, generally, is defined as that amountsufficient to ameliorate, reduce, minimize, or limit the extent of thedisease or condition. More rigorous definitions may apply, includingelimination, eradication, or cure of the disease or condition.

Pharmaceutical Compositions

Pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention can includenanoparticles, composite nanoparticles, or nanocapsules of the presentinvention. The phrases “pharmaceutical or pharmacologically acceptable”can include but are not limited to molecular entities and compositionsthat do not produce an adverse, allergic or other untoward reaction whenadministered to a subject, such as, for example, a human. Thepreparation of a pharmaceutical composition is generally known to thoseof skill in the art. Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th Ed. MackPrinting Company, (1990). Moreover, for animal (e.g., human)administration, it is preferred that the preparations meet sterility,pyrogenicity, general safety, and purity standards as required by theFDA Office of Biological Standards.

“Therapeutically effective amounts” are those amounts effective toproduce beneficial results in the recipient. Such amounts may beinitially determined by reviewing the published literature, byconducting in vitro tests or by conducting metabolic studies in healthyexperimental animals. Before use in a clinical setting, it may bebeneficial to conduct confirmatory studies in an animal model,preferably a widely accepted animal model of the particular disease tobe treated. Preferred animal models for use in certain embodiments arerodent models, which are preferred because they are economical to useand, particularly, because the results gained are widely accepted aspredictive of clinical value.

“Pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includes any and all solvents,dispersion media, coatings, surfactants, antioxidants, preservatives(e.g., antibacterial agents, antifungal agents), isotonic agents,absorption delaying agents, salts, preservatives, drugs, drugstabilizers, gels, binders, excipients, disintegration agents,lubricants, sweetening agents, flavoring agents, dyes, such likematerials and combinations thereof, as would be known to one of ordinaryskill in the art (Remington's, 1990).

The actual dosage amount of a composition of the present inventionadministered to a subject can be determined by physical andphysiological factors such as body weight, severity of condition, thetype of disease being treated, previous or concurrent therapeuticinterventions, idiopathy of the patient and the route of administration.The practitioner responsible for administration will, in any event,determine the concentration of active ingredient(s) in a composition andappropriate dose(s) for the individual subject.

In certain non-limiting embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions maycomprise, for example, at least about 0.1% of an active ingredient ornanoparticles, composite nanoparticles, or nanocapsules, for example. Inother embodiments, the an active ingredient or nanoparticles, compositenanoparticles, or nanocapsules may comprise between about 2% to about75% of the weight of the unit, or between about 25% to about 60%, forexample, and any range derivable therein. In other non-limitingexamples, a dose may also comprise from about 1 microgram/kg/bodyweight, about 5 microgram/kg/body weight, about 10 microgram/kg/bodyweight, about 50 microgram/kg/body weight, about 100 microgram/kg/bodyweight, about 200 microgram/kg/body weight, about 350 microgram/kg/bodyweight, about 500 microgram/kg/body weight, about 1 milligram/kg/bodyweight, about 5 milligram/kg/body weight, about 10 milligram/kg/bodyweight, about 50 milligram/kg/body weight, about 100 milligram/kg/bodyweight, about 200 milligram/kg/body weight, about 350 milligram/kg/bodyweight, about 500 milligram/kg/body weight, to about 1000 mg/kg/bodyweight or more per administration, and any range derivable therein. Innon-limiting examples of a derivable range from the numbers listedherein, a range of about 5 mg/kg/body weight to about 100 mg/kg/bodyweight, about 5 microgram/kg/body weight to about 500 milligram/kg/bodyweight, etc., can be administered, based on the numbers described above.

The composition may also include various antioxidants to retardoxidation of one or more active ingredient or nanoparticles, compositenanoparticles, or nanocapsules. The prevention of the action ofmicroorganisms can be brought about by preservatives such as variousantibacterial and antifungal agents, including but not limited toparabens (e.g., methylparabens, propylparabens), chlorobutanol, phenol,sorbic acid, thimerosal or combinations thereof.

The compositions of the present invention may include different types ofcarriers depending on whether it is to be administered in solid, liquidor aerosol form, and whether it need to be sterile for such routes ofadministration as injection.

The compositions may be formulated into a composition in a free base,neutral or salt form. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts, include theacid addition salts, e.g., those formed with the free amino groups of aproteinaceous composition, or which are formed with inorganic acids suchas for example, hydrochloric or phosphoric acids, or such organic acidsas acetic, oxalic, tartaric or mandelic acid. Salts formed with the freecarboxyl groups can also be derived from inorganic bases such as forexample, sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium or ferric hydroxides; orsuch organic bases as isopropylamine, trimethylamine, histidine orprocaine.

In embodiments where the composition is in a liquid form, a carrier canbe a solvent or dispersion medium comprising but not limited to, water,ethanol, polyol (e.g., glycerol, propylene glycol, liquid polyethyleneglycol, etc.), lipids (e.g., triglycerides, vegetable oils, liposomes)and combinations thereof. The proper fluidity can be maintained, forexample, by the use of a coating, such as lecithin; by the maintenanceof the required particle size by dispersion in carriers such as, forexample liquid polyol or lipids; by the use of surfactants such as, forexample hydroxypropylcellulose; or combinations thereof such methods. Inmany cases, it will be preferable to include isotonic agents, such as,for example, sugars, sodium chloride or combinations thereof.

In other embodiments, one may use eye drops, nasal solutions or sprays,aerosols or inhalants in the present invention. Such compositions aregenerally designed to be compatible with the target tissue type. In anon-limiting example, nasal solutions are usually aqueous solutionsdesigned to be administered to the nasal passages in drops or sprays.Nasal solutions are prepared so that they are similar in many respectsto nasal secretions, so that normal ciliary action is maintained. Thus,in preferred embodiments, the aqueous nasal solutions usually areisotonic or slightly buffered to maintain a pH of about 5.5 to about6.5. In addition, antimicrobial preservatives, similar to those used inophthalmic preparations, drugs, or appropriate drug stabilizers, ifrequired, may be included in the formulation. For example, variouscommercial nasal preparations are known and include drugs such asantibiotics or antihistamines.

In certain embodiments, the compositions are prepared for administrationby such routes as oral ingestion. In these embodiments, the solidcomposition may comprise, for example, solutions, suspensions,emulsions, tablets, pills, capsules (e.g., hard or soft shelled gelatincapsules), sustained release formulations, buccal compositions, troches,elixirs, suspensions, syrups, wafers, or combinations thereof. Oralcompositions may be incorporated directly with the food of the diet.Preferred carriers for oral administration comprise inert diluents,assimilable edible carriers or combinations thereof. In other aspects ofthe invention, the oral composition may be prepared as a syrup orelixir. A syrup or elixir, and may comprise, for example, at least oneactive agent, a sweetening agent, a preservative, a flavoring agent, adye, a preservative, or combinations thereof.

In certain embodiments, an oral composition may comprise one or morebinders, excipients, disintegration agents, lubricants, flavoringagents, and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, a compositionmay comprise one or more of the following: a binder, such as, forexample, gum tragacanth, acacia, cornstarch, gelatin or combinationsthereof; an excipient, such as, for example, dicalcium phosphate,mannitol, lactose, starch, magnesium stearate, sodium saccharine,cellulose, magnesium carbonate or combinations thereof; a disintegratingagent, such as, for example, corn starch, potato starch, alginic acid,or combinations thereof; a lubricant, such as, for example, magnesiumstearate; a sweetening agent, such as, for example, sucrose, lactose,saccharin or combinations thereof; a flavoring agent, such as, forexample peppermint, oil of wintergreen, cherry flavoring, orangeflavoring, etc.; or combinations thereof the foregoing. When the dosageunit form is a capsule, it may contain, in addition to materials of theabove type, carriers such as a liquid carrier. Various other materialsmay be present as coatings or to otherwise modify the physical form ofthe dosage unit. For instance, tablets, pills, or capsules may be coatedwith shellac, sugar or both.

Sterile injectable solutions are prepared by incorporating the activecompounds in the required amount in the appropriate solvent with variousof the other ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed byfiltered sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared byincorporating the various sterilized active ingredients into a sterilevehicle which contains the basic dispersion medium and/or the otheringredients. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation ofsterile injectable solutions, suspensions or emulsion, the preferredmethods of preparation are vacuum-drying or freeze-drying techniqueswhich yield a powder of the active ingredient plus any additionaldesired ingredient from a previously sterile-filtered liquid mediumthereof. The liquid medium should be suitably buffered if necessary andthe liquid diluent first rendered isotonic prior to injection withsufficient saline or glucose. The preparation of highly concentratedcompositions for direct injection is also contemplated, where the use ofDMSO as solvent is envisioned to result in extremely rapid penetration,delivering high concentrations of the active agents to a small area.

The composition should be stable under the conditions of manufacture andstorage, and preserved against the contaminating action ofmicroorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. It will be appreciated thatexotoxin contamination should be kept minimally at a safe level, forexample, less that 0.5 ng/mg protein.

In another aspect of the present invention, a person of ordinary skillwill recognize that the compositions of the present invention caninclude any number of combinations of nanoparticles, compositenanoparticles, nanocapsule, active ingredients, and other components. Itis also contemplated that that the concentrations of these ingredientscan vary. For example, in one-non-limiting aspect, a composition of thepresent invention can include at least about 0.0001% to about 0.001%,about 0.001% to about 0.01%, about 0.01% to about 0.1%, or about 0.2%,0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1.0%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%,1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2.0%, 2.1%, 2.2%, 2.3%, 2.4%, 2.5%, 2.6%,2.7%, 2.8%, 2.9%, 3.0%, 3.1%, 3.2%, 3.3%, 3.4%, 3.5%, 3.6%, 3.7%, 3.8%,3.9%, 4.0%, 4.1%, 4.2%, 4.3%, 4.4%, 4.5%, 4.6%, 4.7%, 4.8%, 4.9%, 5.0%,5.1%, 5.2%, 5.3%, 5.4%, 5.5%, 5.6%, 5.7%, 5.8%, 5.9%, 6.0%, 6.1%, 6.2%,6.3%, 6.4%, 6.5%, 6.6%, 6.7%, 6.8%, 6.9%, 7.0%, 7.1%, 7.2%, 7.3%, 7.4%,7.5%, 7.6%, 7.7%, 7.8%, 7.9%, 8.0%, 8.1%, 8.2%, 8.3%, 8.4%, 8.5%, 8.6%,8.7%, 8.8%, 8.9%, 9.0%, 9.1%, 9.2%, 9.3%, 9.4%, 9.5%, 9.6%, 9.7%, 9.8%,9.9%, 10%, 11%, 12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19%, 20%, 21%, 22%,23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 60%, 65%,70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99% or any range derivable therein, ofat least one of the nanoparticles, nanogels, composite nanoparticles,nanocapsules, active ingredients, or other components that are mentionedthroughout the specification and claims. In non-limiting aspects, thepercentage can be calculated by weight or volume of the totalcomposition. A person of ordinary skill in the art would understand thatthe concentrations can vary depending on the addition, substitution,and/or subtraction of nanoparticles, composite nanoparticles, ornanocapsules, active ingredients, and other components.

Routes of Administration

The present invention can be administered intravenously, intradermally,intraarterially, intraperitoneally, intralesionally, intracranially,intraarticularly, intraprostaticaly, intrapleurally, intratracheally,intranasally, intravitreally, intravaginally, intrauterinely,intrarectally, intrathecally, topically, intratumorally,intramuscularly, intraperitoneally, subcutaneously, subconjunctival,intravascularly, mucosally, intrapericardially, intraumbilically,intraocularally, orally, topically, locally, inhalation (e.g., aerosolinhalation), injection, infusion, continuous infusion, localizedperfusion bathing target cells directly, via a catheter, via a lavage,in cremes, in lipid compositions (e.g., liposomes), or by other methodor any combination of the forgoing as would be known to one of ordinaryskill in the art (Remington's, 1990).

Combination Therapies

In order to increase the effectiveness of a treatment with thenanoparticles, nanogels, composite nanoparticles, or nanocapsules of thepresent invention, it may be desirable to combine these nanoparticles,composite nanoparticles, or nanocapsules with other therapies effectivein the treatment of a particular disease or condition.

The compositions of the present invention, for example, can precede orfollow the other agent treatment by intervals ranging from minutes toweeks. It is contemplated that one may administer both modalities withinabout 12-24 hours of each other and, more preferably, within about 6-12hours of each other. In some situations, it may be desirable to extendthe time period for treatment significantly, where several days (2, 3,4, 5, 6, or 7), several weeks (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8) or evenseveral months (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or more) lapse between the respectiveadministrations.

Various combinations may be employed where a compositions including ananoparticles, composite nanoparticles, or nanocapsules is “A” and thesecondary agent, is “B”: A/B/A B/A/B B/B/A A/A/B A/B/B B/A/A A/B/B/BB/A/B/B B/B/B/A B/B/A/B A/A/B/B A/B/A/B A/B/B/A B/B/A/A B/A/B/A B/A/A/BA/A/A/B B/A/A/A A/B/A/A A/A/B/A.

The following examples are included to demonstrate certain non-limitingaspects of the present invention.

In the examples, N-vinyl formamide (NVF; Aldrich) was distilled undervacuum and stored at about −18° C. prior to use. The initiator,1,1′-azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN; Aldrich), was recrystallized fromethanol. All other materials were used without further purificationincluding: 1-octanol (Fischer Scientific), tetraethoxysilane (TEOS;Aldrich) and 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPS; Aldrich),potassium t-butoxide (Aldrich) and 2-bromoethyl ether (tech, 90%;Aldrich), anhydrous tetrahydrofuran (THF; Aldrich), andpoly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP, Mw=360,000; Sigma). The pure water used wasobtained from a Barnstead NANOpure water purifier. Silica particles wereprepared as described previously in Stöber et al., Controlled Growth ofMonodisperse Silica Spheres in the Micron Size Range, J. ColloidInterface Sci. 1968, 26, 62-69 (1968). MPS-coated silica particles asseeds were prepared as described previously in Bourgeat-Lami et al.,Encapsulation of inorganic particles by dispersion polymerization inpolar media-1. Silica nanoparticles encapsulated by polystyrene, Journalof Colloid and Interface Science 197, (2), 293-308 (1998). In addition,2,2-dibromoethoxypropane was prepared according to Lorette et al.,Preparation of Ketals from 2,2-Dimethoxypropane, J. Org. Chem. 25,521-525 (1960).

Example 1A Synthesis of 2-bis[2,2′-di(N-vinylformamido)ethoxy]propane(“BDEP”)

A few cross-linkers containing acid-labile ketals have been reported.See Murthy, et al., A novel strategy for encapsulation and release ofproteins: Hydrogels and microgels with acid-labile acetal cross-linkers,Journal of the American Chemical Society 124 (42) 12398-12399 (2002);Srinivasachar et al., New Protein Cross-Linking Reagents That AreCleaved by Mild Acid, Biochemistry 28 (6) 2501-2509 (1989); Ruckensteinet al., A novel breakable cross-linker and pH-responsive star-shaped andgel polymers, Macromolecules 32 (12) 3979-3983 (1999). However, thesecross-linkers are not generally suitable for the present inventionbecause they all contain either ester or amido bonds, which are unstableunder strongly basic conditions (hydrolysis of ester or amido bondsdestroys crosslinking points). Therefore, in the present invention, anovel acid-labile cross-linker, BDEP, which is stable under basicconditions was prepared (FIG. 2).

The new acid-labile cross-linker was synthesized by the reaction ofN-vinyl formamide potassium salt with 2,2-dibromoethoxypropane (1),which was synthesized according to the method described in literature.See Fleming et al., Nanosphere-microsphere assembly. Methods forcore-shell materials preparation, Chemistry of Materials 13 (6)2210-2216 (2001). The synthetic procedure included two steps. In thefirst step, N-vinyl formamide potassium salt was prepared by thereaction of N-vinyl formamide with potassium t-butoxide in anhydroustetrahydrofuran in an ice bath. In the second step, the desiredcross-linker, BDEP, was obtained by the addition of the compound (I)into the suspension of N-vinyl formamide potassium salt in anhydrous THFin the presence of the phase-transfer catalyst dicyclohexyl-18-crownaffording an overall yield of 86%. Here the phase-transfer catalystdicyclohexyl-18-crown played a critical role in the improvement of theyield of product. The yield is only about 10% in the absence of thephase transfer catalyst. BDEP is collected as a white needle-likecrystal and is soluble in most polar solvents such as ethanol andacetone.

More specifically, a mixture of N-vinyl formamide (10.23 g, 0.144 mol),potassium t-butoxide (16.47 g, 0.144 mol) and dicyclohexyl-18-crown (2g, 5.3 mmol) in anhydrous THF (200 mL) was stirred vigorously at roomtemperature for 45 minutes and then cooled in an ice bath.2,2-dibromoethoxypropane (17.02 g, 58.6 mmol) was added dropwise for 1hour and then the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 48 hours.After potassium bromide salt was removed, the reaction mixture wasconcentrated under reduced pressure and diluted with 200 mL of water.The crude product was obtained by extraction with CHCl₃ 5 times (50mL×5). The combined organic layers were washed twice with brine anddried over anhydrous sodium sulfate. The resulting product was recoveredafter concentration in vacuo and purification by chromatograph on silica(ethyl acetate/hexane (v/v=8:2); yield: 86%. BDEP structure was thenconfirmed by IR, NMR, and mass spectroscopy.

IR (NaCl, ν: cm⁻¹): 1680 (—NHC(═O)H); 1630 (C═C).

¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, δ, ppm): 8.33, 8.32, 8.13 (m, 2H, —C(═O)H); 7.22-7.19,6.63-6.57 (m, 2H, H₂C═CH—); 4.74-4.43 (m, 4H, CH₂═CH—); 3.73-3.44 (m,8H, —CH₂CH₂—); 1.30-1.28 (t, 6H, —CH₃).

¹³C-NMR (CDCl₃, δ, ppm): 24.48, 40.63, 40.75, 45.28, 56.72, 57.14,57.47, 94.40, 94.76, 94.90, 100.17, 100.40, 128.63, 128.74, 133.51,133.70, 161.98, 162.63, 162.81. Mass calculated for C₁₃H₂₂N₂O₄:270.1579, FOUND (EI): 270.1591.

It will be appreciated to those skilled in the art that compounds ofFormula I and II may be prepared, for example, by modification of thestarting materials. Exemplary starting materials include but are notlimited to 2,2-dibromopropoxypropane, 2,2-dibromobutoxypropane,2,2-dibromobutoxypropane, 2,3-dibromoethoxypropane,2,3-dibromopropoxypropane, 2,3-dibromopropoxybutane, and other similardibromoalkoxyalkyl materials.

Example 1B Synthesis of 2-(N-vinylformamido)ethyl ether

In this example, a novel non-degradable cross-linker was prepared. Morespecifically, a mixture of N-vinylformamide, potassium t-butoxide anddicyclohexyl-18-crown in anhydrous THF was stirred vigorously at roomtemperature for 45 minutes and then cooled in ice bath. Next,2-bromoethyl ether was added dropwise for 1 hour and then the mixturewas stirred at room temperature for 48 hours. After potassium bromidesalt was removed, the reaction mixture was concentrated under reducedpressure and diluted with 200 ml of water. The crude product wasobtained by extraction with CHCl₃ 5 times. (50 ml×5). The combinedorganic layers were washed twice with brine and dried over anhydroussodium sulfate. The resulting product was recovered after concentrationin vacuo and purification by chromatograph on silica (ethylacetate/hexane (v/v=8:2). The purified product is yellowish oil andyield was 86%.

IR (NaCl, ν: cm⁻¹): 1688 (—NHC(═O)H); 1632 (C═C). ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃; δ,ppm): 8.38, 8.08, 8.05 (m, 2H, —C(═O)H); 7.11-7.03, 6.80-6.72 (m, 2H,H₂C═CH—); 4.93-4.63 (m, 4H, CH₂═CH—); 3.85-3.72 (m, 8H, —CH₂CH₂—).

¹³C-NMR (CDCl₃, δ, ppm): 39.99, 45.14, 66.50, 66.86, 67.35, 94.43,94.64, 128.59, 133.32, 161.56, 161.84, 162.59, 162.68.

MS calcd for C₁₀H₁₆N₂O₃: 212.1160, FOUND (EI): 212.1169.

Alternatively, a mixture of N-vinylformamide, potassium carbonate (8 g),sodium hydroxide (14 g) and tetra-n-butylaminium hydrogen sulfate (3.4g) and benzene (100 ml) was stirred vigorously at temperature of 47° C.for 1 hour. The solution of 2-bromoethyl ether (8.6 g) in benzene (50ml) was added dropwise with stirring to the above mixture at 65° C. andmaintained that temperature for 5 hours. The resultant mixture wascooled down to room temperature. Filtered and the precipitate was washedwith benzene (50 ml×2) and the washings are combined with the filtrate.The benzene solution was washed with Na₂CO₃ (5 wt %) (50 ml×3). Theorganic phase was dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and evaporated togive crude product as dark brown oil. The resulting product wasrecovered after concentration in vacuo and purification by chromatographon silica (ethyl acetate/hexane (v/v=8:2). The purified product isyellowish oil and yield was 57%.

It will be appreciated to those skilled in the art that compounds ofFormula III may be prepared, for example, by modification of thestarting materials. Exemplary starting materials include but are notlimited to Bis(2-bromopropyl)ether, Bis(2-bromobutyl)ether, and othersimilar dibromo ethers.

Example 2 Preparation of PNVF Shell/Silica Particle Core CompositeNanoparticles

In this example, composite nanoparticles comprising a silica core and aPNVF shell were prepared. Coating of silica nanoparticles with the PNVFshell was carried out by dispersion graft copolymerization of N-vinylformamide (NVF) and the cross-linker (BDEP) in the presence of PVP(MW=360 kDa) in ethanol at 70° C. In order to successfully achievecoating of PNVF around the silica particles, vinyl groups wereintroduced onto the silica nanoparticle surface prior to polymerizationby using the coupling agent methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (“MPS”),which contains a vinyl group at one terminus. Vinyl groups on theparticle surface allowed covalent attachment and growth of PNVF from theparticle surface by copolymerization with NVF and BDEP. See Tissot etal., Hybrid latex particles coated with silica. Macromolecules 34 (17)5737-5739 (2001); Chaimberg et al., Graft-Polymerization ofPolyvinylpyrrolidone onto Silica, Journal of Applied Polymer Science 37(10), 2921-2931 (1989).

An exemplary procedure is as follows. To a suspension of MPS-modifiedsilica particles (0.5 g) in ethanol (40 mL) was charged NVF (1.25 g),cross-linker (BDEP; 0.66 g), PVP (0.75 g) and AIBN (0.033 g) understirring. After removing oxygen by bubbling with nitrogen for 15minutes, the suspension was heated to 70° C. and maintained at thattemperature for 60 minutes. The composite particles were purified bycentrifugation/dispersion for five cycles using ethanol.

A series of PNVF shell/silica core composite nanoparticles weresynthesized under the same polymerization conditions using silicaparticles ranging from about 83 nm to 800 nm in diameter (FIG. 3). Avery thin PNVF shell (17±1.0 nm) was detectable on the surface of thelargest silica nanoparticles while relatively thicker shells (23±2.0 nm)are evident on the smallest silica nanoparticles. The shell thickness ofPNVF composite nanoparticles was readily controlled by controlling thepolymerization time (FIG. 4). PNVF shell thickness increased withpolymerization time due to the increase in monomer conversion with timeand curtailed as monomer was consumed. The PNVF shell/silica corenanocomposites were easily dispersed in water, ethanol and t-butanol.Maintaining the polymerization temperature lower than 70° C. wasnecessary to produce pure nanocomposites as temperatures above 70° C.may result in the production of a large amount of PNVF nanoparticles.The formation of PNVF nanoparticles is probably ascribed to the highreactivity of NVF and transfer of PNVF chain free-radicals to PVP in thesolution (NVF: C_(m)=9.37×10⁴ at 60° C.), see Gu et al., Kinetics andmodeling of free radical polymerization of N-vinyl formamide, Polymer 42(7) 3077-3086 (2001), which produces new particle nuclei leading to theformation of PNVF particles. See Uyama et al., Preparation ofMonodisperse Poly(N-Vinyl formamide) Particles by DispersionPolymerization in Methanol Solvent, Chemistry Letters (2) 261-262(1993).

Example 3 Preparation of PNVF and Polyvinylamine (PVAm) Nanocapsules

In this example, hollow nanocapsules were prepared using thenanoparticles prepared in Example 2. In general, the nanoparticletemplate was removed using a suitable etchant. In this case, sodiumhydroxide (NaOH), was used to easily dissolve silica particles with theaid of sonication at room temperature to form the PNVF nanocapsules. Theconcentration of NaOH required is directly dependent on the amount ofsilica particles to be etched. The acid-labile PVAm nanocapsules werethen successfully prepared PNVF hydrolysis in NaOH at 80° C. One of theadvantages of using this method is that the conversion of amino groupsof nanocapsules can be controlled by simply controlling hydrolysis time.

More specifically, PNVF nanocapsules were fabricated by etching silicain 1M NaOH aqueous solution under sonication at room temperature.Typically, PNVF shell/silica core composite nanoparticles (0.4 g) weredispersed into 1M NaOH (40 mL) and sonicated at room temperature in asonicating tank for about 60 minutes. The nanocapsules obtained werepurified by dialysis against water at pH 9.0 for 24 hours. Thisprocedure resulted in the production of PNVF nanocapsules that wereabout 30% hydrolyzed.

PVAm nanocapsules were then produced by subsequently hydrolyzing theshell polymer. More specifically, hydrolysis of the PNVF shell in 1MNaOH at 80° C. for 12 hours produced PVAm nanocapsules (about 100%hydrolyzed).

FTIR Spectra

FTIR spectra were recorded on a MB-104 FT-IR Spectrometer (ABB BomenInc.). A Bruker AMX 500 spectrometer was used to record the NMR spectraof compounds synthesized using CDCl₃ as a solvent and tetramethylsilaneas an internal standard. Particle sizes and size distributions weredetermined by quasi-elastic light scattering (QELS). QELS measurementswere performed at a 90° scattering angle with a Brookhaven BI-MAS. Thecumulant method was used to determine the effective diameter andpolydispersity index (σ). In the cumulant analysis, the logarithm of theautocorrelation function is expressed as a polynomial in the delay time(t). The polydispersity index (σ) is defined as σ=μ₂/Γ², where Γ and μ₂are the first two cumulants of the distribution. σ is close to zero fornearly monodisperse samples, small (0.020 to 0.080) for narrow sizedistributions, and large for broad distributions.

FTIR spectra verified each step of the fabrication process: (1) PNVFshell/silica core nanocomposites crosslinked by BDEP, (2) PNVFnanocapsules after silica was etched in 1M NaOH at room temperature for60 minutes, and (3) the resulting PVAm nanocapsules after hydrolysis in1M NaOH aqueous solution at 80° C. for 24 hours, respectively (FIG. 5).Compared to the peaks in the PNVF shell/silica core nanocomposites (FIG.5, line A), the peaks at 1096 cm⁻¹ (Si—O—Si asymmetric stretching) and811 cm⁻¹ (Si—O bending) disappeared in the PNVF nanocapsules (FIG. 5,line B), which suggests that the silica particle templates wereeffectively removed by etching in 1M NaOH at room temperature for 60minutes. The peak at 1666 cm⁻¹ in spectrum A and B is a characteristicpeak of formamide groups in PNVF, which indicates that PNVF compositenanoparticles and nanocapsules were produced, respectively. It wassuspected that the etching process may hydrolyze some of the formamidoside groups along the polyvinyl backbone. Although the FTIR spectrum didnot distinctly show characteristic peaks of amino side groups on thePNVF nanocapsules, ¹H-NMR revealed that about 30% of formamido groupswere converted into amino groups. The disappearance of the peak at 1666cm⁻¹ and appearance of a new peak at 1591 cm⁻¹ after extended treatmentof PNVF nanocapsules with 1M NaOH proved that PVAm nanocapsules wereproduced under the given hydrolysis conditions (formamido conversionabout 100%).

TEM Images

TEM images of nanoparticles and nanocapsules were obtained using A JEOL1200 EXII transmission electron microscope operating at an acceleratingvoltage of 80 kV. The TEM images provided supporting evidence of thenanocapsule fabrication process (FIG. 6). Crosslinked PNVF shell/silicacore nanocomposites (FIG. 6A), PNVF nanocapsules after silica was etchedout in 1 M NaOH at room temperature for 60 minutes (FIG. 6B), and PVAmnanocapsules after hydrolysis in 1 M NaOH aqueous solution at 80° C. for12 hours (FIG. 6C) were clearly depicted by TEM. The inner diameter ofboth PNVF and PVAm nanocapsules became smaller than that of thecorresponding silica nanoparticles used as templates due to theshrinkage of nanocapsules upon evaporation of ethanol during TEM samplepreparation. In solution at pH higher than about 11.0, the PNVFnanocapsules exhibited a diameter close to the corresponding PNVFnanocomposites prior to silica etching. Uniform shell sizes and innerdiameters of both PNVF and PVAm nanocapsules are evident. The PVAmnanocapsule shell (23±0.5 nm) was significantly thicker than thecorresponding PNVF nanocapsule shell (19±1.0 nm), even in the driedstate. The core diameter was also decreased in PVAm nanocapsules (57±3.9nm) as compared to PNVF nanocapsules (68±7.3 nm). It is hypothesizedthat the highly charged PVAm produces swelling due to charge repulsionwithin the crosslinked polymer. This phenomena is expanded upon below.

Example 4 Dissolution/Degradation Kinetics of PVAm Nanocapsules

In this example, the dissolution/degradation kinetics of nanocapsules atvarious pH values was determined by using an 8453 UV/VisibleSpectrophotometer (Agilent Technologies). About 10 mg of PVAmnanocapsules was placed into a cuvette containing 3 mL of buffersolution at a given pH. The absorbance was measured at a fixedwavelength of 480 nm at 25° C. at preselected time intervals. The pH ofthe suspension of PVAm nanocapsules was monitored by XL15 pH meter(Accument, Fisher Scientific) with a pH electrode (Thermo ElectronCorporation). Concentrations of nanocapsules in suspension were chosenso that the initial optical density of the particle suspension was closeto 100%.

The results of the turbidity assay are shown in FIG. 7A. Degradation ofPVAm nanocapsules occurred rapidly at mildly acidic pH values.Conversely, the slight decrease in optical density of the suspension athigher pH values (6.0 and 7.4) indicated that the nanoparticles degradedmuch more slowly. The relative half life of PVAm nanocapsules wasestimated from the midpoint of the optical density curve (Table 1).TABLE 1 The half-life of degradation of PVAm nanocapsules as a functionof pH pH 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.4 Half-life (t_(1/2)) 42 minutes 160 minutesabout 24 hours More than 3 days

The degradation of PVAm nanocapsules in acidic buffer was ascribed tothe breakdown of ketal-containing crosslinks in the PVAm shell. Thedegradation kinetics of PVAm nanocapsules was strongly dependent on thepH of the surrounding milieu because the hydrolysis rate of ketals underacid catalyst is proportional to the hydronium ion concentration insolution. See Cordes et al., Mechanism and catalysis for hydrolysis ofacetals, ketals, and ortho esters, Chemical Reviews 74 581-603 (1974).For example, it has been demonstrated that ketals were hydrolyzedapproximately 250 times faster at pH 5.0 than at pH of 7.4 for the caseof solid microgels. See Kwon et al., Directed antigen presentation usingpolymeric microparticulate carriers degradable at lysosomal pH forcontrolled immune responses, Molecular pharmaceutics 2 (1), 83-91(2005).

The degradation of PVAm nanocapsules was also confirmed by visuallytracking solution opacity at a pH of about 5.0 over 5 hours (FIG. 7B).The initially opaque PVAm nanocapsule suspension at pH 5 turnedcompletely clear within 300 minutes, which indicated that all particleswere degraded and that PVAm oligomers were dissolved in the medium.

Multiple factors directly influenced the degradation kinetics of the twotypes of polyvinyl nanocapsules. In the present invention, the extent ofcrosslinking may be manipulated to adjust the degradation rate ofnanocapsules. For example, doubling the molar content of cross-linkerfrom 6.56% to 13.2% in PVAm nanocapsules resulted in an about 3-foldincrease in nanocapsule half life at pH 5.0 and produced more gradualdegradation kinetics (FIG. 8A). Interestingly, the presence of aminoside groups also dramatically affected the degradation of nanocapsules.¹H-NMR was used to confirm that about 30% of the formamido side groupswere converted to amido side groups during the etching of silicananoparticle templates to form PNVF nanocapsules (data not shown). At pH4.7, PNVF nanocapsules (about 30% amino conversion) exhibited about 2.5fold shorter half life than PVAm nanocapsules that contained about 100%amino conversion (FIG. 8B). The presence of the amino side groups mayhave a localized buffering effect in that hydronium ions necessary tobreak the ketal cross-linker associated with amino groups in the capsulematrix. Therefore, increasing the percentage of hydrolyzed formamidoside groups may have provided more sites for hydronium ion capture andextend the degradation half life of nanocapsules. This hypothesis wasfurther supported by observing the effect of PVAm nanocapsuleconcentration on the degradation half life (FIG. 8C). Increasing theconcentration of PVAm nanocapsules (about 100% hydrolyzed) increased thepH of the dissolution media and linearly increased the degradation halflife (FIG. 8D). For the PVAm nanocapsule concentrations studied, theoriginal solution was buffered at pH 4; however, the reduction incross-linker degradation as nanocapsule concentration increased mayagain be attributed to the ability of amino side groups to occupyhydronium ions (buffering effect). Finally, the localized bufferingeffect may be reflected in the sigmoidal degradation kinetics for allformulations, which do not follow linear ketal degradation.

Example 5 Comparison of Charge and Swelling of PNVF and PVAmNanocapsules

In this example, nanocapsules were conjugated with FITC. Morespecifically, PVAm nanocapsules (100 mg) were dispersed in sodiumbicarbonate buffer at pH 9 (5 mL). Fluoroisothiocyanate (FITC; 11.07 mg)was dissolved in dry DMSO (5 mL), added to the PVAm nanocapsuledispersion, and stirred overnight at room temperature. FITC-conjugatedPVAm nanocapsules were purified by centrifugation and dispersion inwater at pH 9.0 for three-cycles.

Total internal reflectance illuminator microscopy images (TIRFM) ofFITC-labeled PVAm nanocapsules were obtained by a fluorescencemicroscope (Olympus 1X71) equipped with a total internal reflectanceilluminator. The particles were excited with the 514 nm line of aCoherent Innova 70 Spectrum Kr/Ar laser and images collected with a Qimaging Retiga 1300 CCD. The FITC-conjugated PVAm nanocapsules was thenused to visualize the capsule swelling as the pH decreased as set forthin Example 6.

Next, the zeta potential measurements were employed to evaluate thesurface charge of nanocapsules (FIG. 9). For this study, larger capsuleswere used, which allowed confirmation of the capsule size by totalinternal fluorescence illuminator microscopy (TIRIF) as well asdetection of zeta potential and accurate determination of capsule sizeby QELS, all with respect to pH. PVAm capsules possessed a positive zetapotential below pH 10.7. The zeta potential increased with decreasingpH, indicating the presence of protonated amino groups as expected. AtpH 10.7, the nanocapsules have a zeta potential of about 0 mV becausethe pKa of PVAm is about 10. Examining the PNVF nanocapsulespost-etching but prior conversion to PVAm produced similar trends;however, the magnitude of the change in zeta potential as a function ofpH was dampened for the PNVF nanocapsules due to the significantreduction of amino side groups on the capsules (about 30% aminoconversion). The observation of comparable, although dampened, zetapotential trends was again attributed to the charged state of the aminoside groups on PNVF nanocapsules.

The diameter of PVAm nanocapsules also exhibited a correspondingpH-dependency. PVAm nanocapsules drastically decreased in diameter withincreasing pH (about 1.7 fold diameter change over 4 pH units). The pHdependence of PVAm nanocapsule size correlated extremely well to changesin PVAm protonation (FIG. 9). A similar correlation between zetapotential and nanocapsule size was also observed for PNVF nanocapsules(about 30% hydrolyzed). Total internal fluorescence illuminatormicrographs (TIFIM) provided visual evidence that PVAm nanocapsules arehollow and have a larger size at pH 6.8 than at pH 11 (FIG. 10).

As a final examination of these phenomena, PNVF shell/silica corecomposite nanoparticles with the PNVF shell crosslinked by anon-degradable cross-linker, 2-(N-vinylformamido)ethyl ether, in whichthe ketal was replaced by an oxygen atom, was produced.

The PNVF nanocapsules were produced with negligible conversion offormamido side groups by etching silica with hydrofluoric acid (HF).These PNVF nanocapsules possessed negligible sensitivity to pH,maintaining a near constant zeta potential (about 0 mV) and size (FIG.11).

Example 6 Characterization of PNVF Oligomers from Degraded Nanocapsules

In this example, the molecular weight and number of PNVF recovered afternanocapsule degradation was determined by size exclusion chromatography(VE-2001; Viscotek) equipped with a Viscotek 270 dual detector andViscotek VE3580 RI detector using a GMPWx1 column (column size: 78 mm(ID)×300 mm (L)). An aqueous mobile phase was used consisting of 0.1 MNaNO₃ and 0.01% NaN₃ at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min at 35° C.

In order to obtain the molecular weight of products after nanocapsuledegradation, PNVF shell/silica core composite nanoparticles crosslinkedwith BDEP was dissolved in 10% HF. The degraded PNVF was obtained afterdialysis of the PNVF solution against water for 24 hours to removeetched silica. FTIR and NMR spectra confirmed that PNVF did not undergohydrolysis during the dissolution of the particles in 10% HF (data notshown). The molecular weight of the recovered PNVF was 14,800 Da and themolecular weight distribution was 1.45 (FIG. 12).

Example 7A Preparation of PNVF Nanoparticles Using BDEP

In this example, an acid-labile PNVF nanoparticles were produced. Morespecifically, the nanoparticles are generally formed by inverse emulsionpolymerization using the BDEP as a cross-linker, the azonitrile Vaso-52(Dupont) as a free radical initiator, PBS buffer (at pH 8.0), and Span80 (sorbitan monooleate), and Tween 80 (polyethyleneglycol-sorbitanmonooleate) as a surfactant at a temperature of about 35° C. During theinverse emulsion polymerization, a small amount of water is dispersedinto an organic phase (e.g., hexane) and stabilized by the surfactants.The polymerizable groups and the acid-labile cross-linker are thenpolymerized in the aqueous phase (optionally in the presence of theactive ingredient, e.g., lysozyme) and the initiator. Sincepolymerization is initiated and contained within water droplets, mainlyspherical crosslinked nanoparticles (optionally containing the activeingredient) are produced. The nanoparticles are purified by centrifugingthe samples to pellet and isolate the nanoparticles. The particles maybe repeatedly resuspended in water or other suitable solvent andcentrifuged in order to wash the particles as needed. The synthesisscheme is generally set forth in FIGS. 13A and 13B. The PNVF nanogelshad a hydrodynamic diameter of about 100 to 130 nm.

This example was repeated using different polymerization temperaturesand times. The results are shown in Table 2 below and FIG. 14. TABLE 2Experimental Conditions and Results of PNVF nanogel Nanogel NanogelYield of NVF BDEP Size in size in nanogel Run^(a) (mg) (mg) hexane (nm)Polydispersity water (nm) Polydispersity (%) 1 350 50 79.2 0.056 137.5 ±1.3 0.128 / 2 350 50 86.1 0.061 127.9 ± 1.7 0.011 / 3 350 50 / / 120.1 ±2.3 0.071 98.1 4^(b) 350 50 74.9 0.101 104.3 ± 0.5 0.158 89.3^(a)Run 1,2 and 3: Polymerization temperature: 50° C. Polymerizationtime: 24 hours^(b)Polymerization temperature: 35° C. Polymerization time: 48 hours

The PNVF nanogels were then dried by air-drying. The resulting nanogelshad a diameter of about 60 to 100 nm, usually around 70-80 nm. A TEM ofthe dry PNVF nanogels is shown in FIG. 15.

Example 7B Synthesis of PNVF Nanogel Using NVFEE

A PNVF nanogel was also prepared by inverse emulsion copolymerization ofNVF and cross-linker 2-(N-vinylformamido) ethyl ether (“NVFEE”) in waterdroplets, which were dispersed in hexane medium in the presence ofsurfactant Span-80 and Tween-80. The cross-linker used in thisexperiment was not acid-labile. However, it was used in this examplebecause it was more easily synthesized than BDEP. However, it istheorized that NVFEE and BDEP may be readily interchanged to form thenanogels, but that BDEP has the additional advantage of beingacid-degradable.

Typically, NVF (350 mg), cross-linker (50 mg), and initiator AIBN (20mg) were dissolved in PBS buffer (160 mg) at pH between 6.5 and 8.5. Thesolution was emulsified in 100 ml of hexane, which contained AIBN (30mg), Span-80 (4.1 g) and Tween-80 (3.5 g), under homogenization at about20,000 rpm for about five minutes. After being purged with nitrogen, theemulsion was heated to about 50° C. and maintained that temperature forabout 48 hours. The nanogels were obtained by centrifuge andredispersion in buffer under sonication. The nanoparticle size was about134±1.3 nm and yield was 89%.

Example 7C Synthesis of PVAm Nanogel

PNVF nanogel (0.071 g) from Example 7B (using NVFEE) was dispersed in 10ml of sodium hydroxide aqueous solution (0.1 M) and hydrolysis wascarried out at 80° C. for 12 hours. PVAm nanogels were purified bydialysis against nanopure water in dialysis tubing with 2000 MW cut off.The yield was about 54.5%. The conversion of the formamide to aminegroups was about 100%.

It will be appreciated that similar PVAm nanogels may be synthesizedusing acid-labile cross-linkers, such as BDEP. However, because NVFEE ismore readily synthesized, it was used in this example.

Example 8 Turbidity Assay of PNVF Nanogels

In this example, the degradation of the PNVF nanogels from Example 7Awere investigated using a turbidity assay. More specifically, thedispersion kinetics of the nanoparticles were investigated using a 8453UV/Visible Spectrophotometer (Agilent Technologies), by measuring theoptical density at 480 nm at 25° C. at various time intervals. FIG. 16Aand FIG. 16B shows that the nanoparticles were relatively stable at a pHof about 7.4. However, when the pH was lowered to about 5.8, thenanoparticles rapidly degraded with a degradation half-life of about 90minutes. In addition, when the pH was lowered to about 4.7, thedegradation rate was even more pronounced. The degradation half-life wasabout 9.8 minutes when the pH was lowered to 4.7.

Example 9 Encapsulation of Lysozyme in PNVF Nanogels

In this example, nanogels prepared in accordance with Example 7A werealso used to encapsulate lysozyme. More specifically, NVF (350 mg), BDEP(50 mg), initiator Vazo-52 (20 mg) and lysozyme (10 mg) were dissolvedin PBS buffer (160 mg) at pH 8.0. The solution was emulsified in 100 mlof hexane, which contained Vazo-52 (30 mg), Span-80 (4.1 g) and Tween-80(3.5 g), under sonication for 30 seconds. After being purged with N₂,the emulsion was heated to 35° C. and maintained that temperature for 48hours. The nanogels were obtained by centrifuge and retispersion inbuffer under sonication. The nanogel size was 273±1.7 nm and yield was49.3%.

FIG. 17 also shows the protein (in this case lysozyme) releasecharacteristics as a function of pH. At a pH of 7.4, the nanoparticlesremained substantially intact such that less than 20% of the lysozymewas released after 200 minutes. In contrast, when the pH was raised toabout 5.8, over 90% of the protein was released in the same amount oftime. This example illustrates how the nanoparticles of the presentinvention may be used for the pH-dependent and controlled delivery ofvarious active ingredients.

Example 10 PVAm Nanogel for Gene Delivery

In this example, PVAm nanogels (about 180 nm) from Example 7C were usedto condense DNA for gene delivery applications. The pH of PVAm nanogelsuspensions was adjusted to 7.4 with 0.1N HCl and then mixed withdifferent amounts of DNA at room temperature for 20-30 minutes. Stockconcentration, then a green fluorescent protein (“GFP”) plasmid DNA,used was 0.25 μg/ml in TE buffer (pH 7.4). 600 μl of nanogel suspensionwas mixed with different volumes of stock DNA ranging from 25 μl to 300μl. The size of nanogels reduced to 150 nm with 18 mV zeta potential onthe addition of 300 μl DNA. Subtracting the amount of DNA in thesupernatant of the nanogels from the total DNA added, resulted in 50%binding of DNA to the nanogel in the above mentioned formulation.

Example 11 Preparation of PVAm Nanogel with MRI Agents

In this example, an exemplary MRI agent was conjugated to PVAm nanogelsfrom Example 7C. More specifically Gd-DTPA was conjugated with PVAmnanogels. Gd-DTPA (100.20 mg) was dissolved in 7.5 ml of water and thenN-hydroxysuccinimide (“NHS”) (22.48 mg) and 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride (“EDC”) (47.76 mg) were added.After the solution was stirred at room temperature for 30 minutes, added2.5 ml of PVAm suspension, which contained 7.5 mg PVAm nanogel, andadjusted pH to 7.4. The solution was stirred at room temperature for 48hours. The resultant product was purified by dialysis against nanopurewater for 48 hours.

FIG. 18 shows the MRI signal vs concentration of Gd-PVAm nanogel. Theconcentration at zero mg/ml (zero percent) is the normal signal forwater. The use of gadolinium-modified nanogels allows for enhancement ofthe contrast. Thus, this example shows that the nanoparticles of thepresent invention are well-suited for use in conjunction with MRItracers and contrast agents.

Example 12 Preparation of PEG-PVAm Nanogel with MRI Agents

In this example, an exemplary MRI agent was conjugated to PVAm nanogelsfrom Example 7C that were also conjugated to polyethylene glycol. First,PEG₂₀₀₀ was conjugated onto PVAm nanogels (PEG-PVAm nanogels). PVAmnanogel (10 mg) was dispersed in 5 ml of PBS buffer. After PVAmsuspension was adjusted to pH 7.83, PEG₂₀₀₀ N-hydroxysuccinimidyl ester(50 mg) was added. The solution was stirred at room temperature for 48hours. PEG-conjugated PVAm nanogel was purified by dialysis to removeunreacted PEG and other byproducts. The use of PEG is theorized toimprove circulation half-life and allow better conjugation of targetingligands to the terminus of the PEG.

Next, Gd-DTPA was conjugated with the PEG-PVAm nanogels. Morespecifically, Gd-DTPA (100.20 mg) was dissolved in 7.5 ml of water andthen N-hydroxysuccinimide (“NHS”) (22.48 mg) and EDC (74.77 mg) wereadded. After the solution was stirred at room temperature for 25minutes, added above PEG-PVAm nanogel suspension and adjusted solutionto pH 7.3. The solution was stirred at room temperature for 48 hours.The resulting product was obtained after dialysis against nanopure waterfor 48 hours. FIG. 19 shows the FTIR spectra of the PNVF nanogelscompared to those conjugated with Gd/PEG. The presence of the carboxylbands in the figure indicates that reaction was successful.

Example 13 Preparation of Small PNVF Nanogels

PNVF nanogels were prepared by inverse microemulsion polymerization. Aninitiator, VAZO-52, 10 mg was dissolved in 175 μl of vinylformamide. 25mg of non-degradable cross linker was dissolved in 82.5 μl of water. Thecross linker solution was added to the mixture of monomer and initiator.The organic phase consisted of 50 ml of hexane containing 15 mg ofVAZO-52, 5.15 g of Span 80, and 4.5 g of Tween 80. The emulsion wasprepared by homogenizing the two phases at 15,000 rpm for 5 minutes atroom temperature. The clear solution was stirred under N₂ for 20 minutesand then heated to 35° C. for 24 hours. The particle size in hexane wasabout 13 nm.

Example 14 Preparation of PVAm Nanogels with Magnetite

In this example, PVAm nanogels from Example 7C were conjugated to ironoxide in the form of magnetite (iron oxide), another well-known MRIcontrast agent. Further, the use of a magnetic agent permits easyrecovery of the nanoparticles or nanocapsules simply by using a magnet.

First, the magnetite nanoparticles were prepared. Fe(II)/Fe(III)solutions were mixed in a molar ratio of 0.5 and at a pH of 11-12. FeCl₂(1.0 g) and of FeCl₃ (2.73 g) were dissolved in 0.85 mL of 12.1 N HCland 25 mL of purified, deoxygenated water with stirring. The combinedFe(II),Fe(III) solution was added drop wise into a 150 mL of 1.5 M NaOHsolution. The resulting solution was subjected to strong stirring and ablack precipitate formation was observed instantly. The Fe₃O₄ blackprecipitate was isolated by using a magnet and the supernatant wasdecanted. The precipitate was washed with purified water, withcentrifuge at 6000 rpm and decanting the supernatant. This was repeatedfor three times. The precipitate was dried and obtained as a blackpowder. The particle size was about 60 nm.

The magnetite was incorporated into the PVAm nanogel from Example 7Chaving a particle size of about 165-200 nm using by the followingmethod. First, about 500 μL of Solution A was added to about 10 mLsolution of PVAm nanogel with vigorous stirring. The light orangesolution obtained was allowed to stir overnight, centrifuged at 15,000rpm for 30 minutes, and the resulted orange precipitate was redispersedin water. To the orange solution, Fe³⁺ solution was added and allowed tostir overnight. (0.2 g of Fe³⁺ was dissolved in 10 mL of 0.1 M NaOH).The resulting dark orange-black solution was centrifuged for 30 minutesat 15,000 rpm to obtain a blackish-orange precipitate. The particle sizewas about 965 nm.

This procedure was repeated with different concentrations of NaOH, andfound that the greenish-black precipitate formation [Fe(OH)₂] is lowerin low NaOH concentrations.

Solution A was prepared by dissolving 0.1 g Fe²⁺ in 10 mL of 1.0 M NaOH,a cloudy green solution was resulted upon this.

The references cited herein, as well as the following references, to theextent that they provide exemplary procedural or other detailssupplementary to those herein, are incorporated herein by reference.

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From the foregoing it will be seen that this invention is one welladapted to attain all ends and objectives herein-above set forth,together with the other advantages which are obvious and which areinherent to the invention. Since many possible embodiments may be madeof the invention without departing from the scope thereof, it is to beunderstood that all matters herein set forth or in the accompanyingfigures are to be interpreted as illustrative, and not in a limitingsense. While specific embodiments have been shown and discussed, variousmodifications may of course be made, and the invention is not limited tothe specific forms or arrangement of parts and steps described herein,except insofar as such limitations are included in the following claims.Further, it will be understood that certain features and subcombinationsare of utility and may be employed without reference to other featuresand subcombinations. This is contemplated by and is within the scope ofthe claims.

1. A composition of matter comprising: (a) a nanoparticle template; and(b) a polymer shell formed on said template by polymerizing a monomerwith an acid labile cross-linker according to:

wherein n and m are independently an integer of between 1 and 10; andwherein Y is a lower alkyl.
 2. The composition of claim 1 furthercomprising an active ingredient associated with said template or shell.3. The composition of matter of claim 2, wherein the active ingredientcomprises a therapeutic agent or an imaging agent.
 4. The composition ofmatter of claim 3, wherein said active ingredient a peptide, a protein,or a nucleic acid.
 5. The composition of matter of claim 1, wherein thenanoparticle template comprises a material selected from the groupconsisting of silica, ceramic, organic polymer, and combinationsthereof.
 6. The composition of matter of claim 1, wherein thenanoparticle template comprises a sphere or a rod.
 7. The composition ofmatter of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticle template is a sphere havinga diameter ranging from about 1 nanometer to about 1,000 nanometers. 8.The composition of matter of claim 7, wherein the nanoparticle templateis a sphere having a diameter ranging from about 5 nanometers to about500 nanometers.
 9. The composition of matter of claim 8, wherein thenanoparticle template is a sphere having a diameter ranging from about10 nanometers to about 200 nanometers.
 10. The composition of matter ofclaim 1 wherein said shell thickness is between about 20 and 40 nm. 11.The composition of matter of claim 1 wherein said polymer shellcomprises poly(N-vinyl formamide) (“PNVF”) or PNVF that has beenpartially or fully hydrolyzed to polyvinyl amine (“PVAm”).
 12. Thecomposition of matter of claim 11 wherein shell comprises PNVF that isabout 30 to 50% hydrolyzed to PVAm.
 13. The composition of claim 11wherein said cross-linker is2-bis[2,2′-di(N-vinylformamido)ethoxy]propane (“BDEP”).
 14. Thecomposition of claim 11 wherein said cross-linker is2-(N-vinylformamido)ethyl ether (“NVFEE”).
 15. The composition of claim1 wherein said nanoparticle template comprises a silica particle, andsaid polymer shell formed on said nanoparticle template comprises PNVFor PVAm; and wherein said polymer is cross-linked by an acid labilecross-linker which is BDEP.
 16. The composition of matter of claim 1,wherein the nanoparticle template is dissolved to thereby form ananocapsule defined by said shell.
 17. The composition of matter ofclaim 12, wherein the nanoparticle template is dissolved to thereby forma nanocapsule defined by said shell.
 18. The composition of matter ofclaim 15, wherein said shell is hydrolyzed to form a PVAm shell.
 19. Thecomposition of matter of claim 1, wherein the shell has a thicknessdetermined by a time of polymerization of the monomer.
 20. A compositionof matter comprising acid labile PNVF nanoparticles or PNVFnanoparticles which have been partially or fully hydrolyzed to PVAmnanoparticles having a particle size less than 500 nanometers.
 21. Thecomposition of matter of claim 20 wherein said particle size is lessthan about 200 nanometers.
 22. The composition of matter of claim 20wherein said particle size is less than about 100 nanometers.
 23. Thecomposition of matter of claim 20 further comprising an activeingredient associated with said nanoparticles.
 24. The composition ofmatter of claim 23 wherein said active ingredient is an enzyme or amagnetic resonance imaging contrast agent.
 25. The composition of matterof claim 20 wherein said nanoparticles are cross-linked by across-linker according to:

wherein n and m are independently an integer of between 1 and 10; andwherein Y is a lower alkyl.
 26. A cross-linker according to:

wherein n and m are independently an integer of between 1 and 10; andwherein Y is a lower alkyl.
 27. The cross-linker of claim 26 definedaccording to:

wherein n and m are independently an integer of between 1 and 10;wherein R¹ and R² are independently a lower alkyl.
 28. The cross-linkerof claim 26 which is 2-bis[2,2′-di(N-vinylformamido)ethoxy]propane(“BDEP”).
 29. The cross linker of claim 26 which is2-(N-vinylformamido)ethyl ether (“NVFEE”).
 30. A method of making thecomposition of matter of claim 1 comprising: forming a suspension oftemplate, monomer, cross-linker, and initiator; and polymerizing saidmonomer onto said template to form a composite nanoparticle.
 31. Amethod for making the composition of matter of claim 30 wherein saidmethod comprises: (a) preparing a mixture of N-vinyl formamide monomer(“NVF”), initiator, an acid labile cross-linker in an inverse emulsionwhere an aqueous phase contains the NVF and the cross-linker, and analiphatic phase contains the bioactive material; (b) emulsifying themixture to achieve a pre-determined particle size; then (c) polymerizingthe NVF to form a PNVF nanoparticle.
 32. The method of claim 31 whereinsaid aliphatic phase comprises a lower alkane.
 33. The method of claim31 wherein said mixture further comprises an active ingredient.
 34. Themethod of claim 31 further comprising the step of hydrolyzing said PNVFto form a PVAm nanogel.